Resume: I do think every serious researcher should first read a basic philosophy book to understand the meaning of their work (Philosophy of science: a very short introduction). In practice, research begins with some literature searching and reviewing (Doing a literature search; Critical thinking for students: learn the skills of critical assessment and effective argument; Doing a literature review or The literature review: six steps to success), based on the past and current literature, one can form his own research project or proposal (Developing effective research proposals), according to the research project which depicts the research problem and data types, one can begin the data collection, either secondary data (Secondary research information sources and methods ), or primary data (Survey, questionnaire, interview and participation). Whatever the source of the data, the data type will determine the analytic tool used, either qualitative (Qualitative_Data_Analysis__A_User_friendly_Guide_for_Social_Scientists; Qualitative_Data_Analysis__An_expanded_Sourcebook_2nd_Edition) or quantitative (Interpreting quantitatie data; Statistics for people who hate statistics; Doing statistics with SPSS; Nonparametric_Statistics_for_Non_Statisticians__A_Step_by_Step_Approach). The results and general theoretical conclusion will then be presented (Writing and presenting research).
Research is to generate new knowledge and to convince readers of the validity of the conclusions.
Categorise the objects, describe the facts, explain the phenomenon, compare constrasting situations, correlate two or more phenomena, predict and control.
Different approachs
historical aims at reestablish and reevaluate the past facts; descriptive based on observation as a means of collecting data; correlation to find causal relations between independent variable and dependent variable; comparative to explore what conditions necessary to cause certain events; experimental attempts to isolate and control the conditon of determinants; simluation by creating models; action research depends mainly on observation and behavioural data (pragmatic purpose); ethnological focuses on how subjects interpret their own behaviour rather than imposing a theory from outside; cultural concerned with the subjects of language and cultural interpretation.
Research philosophy
Metaphysics: idealism and materialism
Epistemology: empiricism (inductive reasoning) and rationalism (deductive reasoning)
Scientific method: identification of a problem - developing a hypothesis inductively from observations - charting their implications by deduction - practical theoretical testing - rejecting or refining it.
The role of human objects and researcher, and the status of social phenomena: positivism (universal rules) and relativism (different interprentations of the world). Postmodernism considers science itself as subject of continual reinvention and change; critical realism suggests concepts and theories about social events are developed on the basis of their observable effects, and interpreted in such a way that they can be understood and acted upon, even if the interpretation is open to revision as understanding grows.
1. Philosophy of science: a very short introduction
Writing proposal and research project
As we can see, all kinds of research begin with a kind of writing of research project. A research proposal need to explain the nature of the research and its context, and why it is needed; the aim and objectives of the research and how it will be carried out and what the outcomes are likely to be.
Title-Aim-Background and literature review-research problem-methods-expected outcomes-timetable and description of resources required-references
1. Good essay writing: a social sciences guide
2. Essay writing: a student's guide
3. Proposals that work: a guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals
4. Developing effective research proposals
5. Writing and presenting research
6. Writing up qualitative research
Finding research problem
Research problem can be set up by main question and subquestions, which focus on: different aspects; differnt perspectives; different concepts; and different scales.
The research problem can also be stated in an exploratory approach, which constitutes the subject and scope of the exploration.
Hypothetico-dedecutive method is expressed in terms of the testing of a particular hypothesis. A thypothesis needs to be testable, limit the equiry to the interaction of certain factors, and suggest the methods appopriate for collecting, analysing the data. For this reason, the main abstract and conceptual hypothesis is usually broken down into sub-hypothesis in order to be operational.
A set of propositions rather than a hypothesis allows to concentrate on particular relationships between events. The first proposition is a statement of a particular situation, which is then followed with further propositions that point out factors or events that are related to it.
An argument is to draw conclusions from premises. Genearlly there are only two aims of argumentation. one is to argue for a statement, the other is to refute it. to support a statement, you must prove the truth of the premises, then emply a sound logical progression. to refute a statement, you can challenge the trut of evidence, question the relevance or completness of the evidence, challenge the logic of the argument, or produce counter-examples.
1. Critical thinking for students: learn the skills of critical assessment and effective argument.
Literature Review (15-20 well selected references)
Four major directions:
Research theory and philosophy
History of developments in your subject
Latest research and developments in your subject
Research methods
Critical appraisal:
Relevance: data collection, analysis methods, findings and conclusions
Theoretical assumptions
Logic of the argument
Comparaison between texts
Contents of a review:
Study design and assumptions
Methods and data collection
Analytical methods
Main finding
Conclusions
The study's strengths and limitations
1. Doing a literature search: a comprehensive guide for the social sciences
2. Internet research skills: how to do your literature search and find research information online
3. The literature review: six steps to success
Data nature
Theory (main question)
Concepts (sub-questions)
Indicators (data types)
Variables (data measures)
Values (measurements)
Primary data: measurement, observation, interrogation, participation
Secondary data: check the quality (source, argument, comparaison)
Quantitative data use statistical means as the major analytical tool, while qualitative data require different analytical techniques (maybe critical discourse analysis?)
Different levels of data measurements
Nominal level: distinctive categories (simple graphic and stastical techniques)
Ordinal level: order with regard to a particular property (more statistical techniques)
Interval level: regular scale of some sort
Ratio level: a true zero, and can be expressed in terms of multiples of fractional parts
Secondary data collection
*Locating ana accessing secondary data: data set online; documentary data; libraries and archives; commercial and professional bodies
*Quality check: author and source credibility; methodology and argument; relevance
*Analysis tools (the book clearly prioritize the statistical techiniques and less on descriptive means)
-Content analysis (coding and measuring)
-Data mining
-Meta-analysis
1. Reworking qualitative data: the possibility of secondary analysis
2. Secondary research information sources and methods
Primary data collection
Sampling and case studies (for studies of inter-relational factors)
Population charateristics and sampling techinques
Collection methods
Survey by questionnaires; interviews; observation; participation (grounded theory takes the collecting data to evolve theory rather than to test or refine an exisiting one); experiments; model building.
1. How to sample in surveys
2. Developing a questionnaire-real world research
3. Interviews in qualitative research
4. Using observations in small-scale research: a beginner's guide
Quantitative data analysis
statistical analysis is often only meaningful when the data of a number of cases is available.
Parametric statistics and non-parametric statistics (nominal or ordinal data)
Parametric tests: descriptive and inferential
Parametric tests: univariate analysis (descriptive); bivariate and multivariate analysis (inferential)
1. Statistics for people who hate statistics
2. Doing statistics with SPSS
3. Starting statistics: a short, clear guide
4. Interpreting quantitatie data
5. Quantitative data analysis for SPSS 12 and 13: a guide for social scientists
6. Nonparametric statistics: an introduction
Qualtitative data analysis
In qualitative research a reciprocal process of data collection and data analysis is an essential part of the project. This type of research is based on data expressed in the form of words rather than on numbers. You will be acting rather like a lawyer presenting a case, using a quasi-judicial approach such as used in an enquiry into a disaster or scnadal.
Qualitative data analysis: data reduction, data display, conclusion and verification.
Data reduction: typologies (classification and coding system); patterns and themes (pattern coding); interim summary.
Data display: matrix (tables); network (maps and charts).
Texts, documents and discourse analysis: interrogative insertion; problem-solution discourse; membership categorization; rhetorical analysis; narrative analysis; semiotics; discourse analysis (the interpretive context of the discourse and the rhetorical organization of the discourse).
1. Real world research: a resource for social scientists and practitioner-researchers.
2. Social research methods
3. An introduction to qualitative research
4. Interpreting qualitative data: methods for analysing talk, text and interaction
5. Doing and writing qualitative research
6. Making sense of qualitative data: complementary research strategies
